Chronology of Space Exploration

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Chronology of Space Exploration Jump to: navigation , search

Astronaut Piers Sellers during the third spacewalk of mission STS-121 in 2006 . The exploration of space , sometimes called the conquest of space is in the exploration physics of space , that is to say of all the objects outside the Earth . Exploring the Solar System is the first step in a major event in the second half of the twentieth century scientifically, but also more broadly to our societies, by the tremendous expansion of this new frontier. A space colonization could hcg diet reviews be chiropractic marketing seen as the outcome in the very long term. Thanks to advances in Germany during the Second World War , particularly in the field of rockets , the conquest of space has quickly gained momentum and was one of the highlights of the second half of xx th century . It was marked at its
beginning by a strong competition between the U.S. and the USSR , for reasons of national prestige associated with the Cold War . We called this period the space race . Since, although the conquest of space is still largely dominated by space agencies, national and international such as NASA or the ESA , many companies plan to develop commercial launch vehicles . The space tourism also of interest to businesses through partnerships with space agencies, but also by the development of their own fleet of space vehicles. The idea of sending an object or a man in space was designed by the authors of science fiction for hundreds of years before it is physically and materially possible. During the second half of the XX th century with the development of appropriate means of propulsion, improved materials, a mission in space was no longer just a dream but became a reality. Three major events of the conquest of space is to remember: the first orbital space flight in history on 4 October 1957 by the Soviet satellite Sputnik web hosting reviews 1 , the first manned flight by a human being on 12 April 1961 with the orbital flight of Soviet Yuri Gagarin and then the first step on the Moon on 20 July 1969 by the astronaut Neil Armstrong . There followed many probes sent as Galileo party in October 1989 bound for Jupiter and Cassini-Huygens mission to Saturn . Other missions were launched as recently as Mars Express in 2003, Venus Express in 2005 and New Horizons in 2006. The most distant celestial body visited so far is Neptune, near which rose the probe Voyager 2 in 1989. Given the declassification of Pluto in 2006, we can say that all the planets of the solar system have been visited since 1989. However, many trans-Neptunian objects and other asteroids remain to be explored 1 , and Voyager are just beginning to touch the edge of the heliopause . Summary [ hide ] 1 Some key dates Two space programs by country 3 People 3.1 Pioneers of space exploration 3.2 Astronauts famous 4 Victims 5 The major programs 6 manned missions 6.1 Figures 7 Related Articles 8 Notes and references Major dates

Main article: History of Space Flight . Dates Event Photo 4 October 1957 The small Soviet satellite Sputnik 1 becomes the first object into orbit by humans.

3 November 1957 The Russian dog Laika first living animal to be sent into space, who died after a few hours aboard Sputnik -2.

October 1, 1958 Creation of NASA , the space agency of the United States.

4 January 1959 The Soviet probe Luna -1 makes the first flight over the moon and became the first “planet” artificial 12 April 1961 First Human in space for an orbital flight , the Russian Yuri Gagarin .

14 December 1962 First flyby of another planet, Venus , the vps hosting U.S. probe Mariner -2. 16 June 1963 First woman in space Valentina Tereshkova . 15 December 1964 The Italy launches its first satellite, San Marco 1 , with an American Scout launcher, and it becomes the third nation after the Soviet Union and the United States, to be put into orbit a satellite.

18 March 1965 First spacewalk by Soviet Alexei Leonov aboard the capsule Voskhod 2 . 26 November 1965 The France launches its first satellite Asterix using a Diamant rocket .

3 February 1966 The Soviet probe Luna 9 arises gently on the floor of the moon.

29 November 1967 The Australia launches its first satellite WRESAT-1 from Woomera Rocket Range . 21 July 1969 First steps of man on the Moon during the mission Apollo 11 , made by Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin .

19 April 1971 Launch of the first manned space station, Salyut -1 by the Soviet Union . 13 November 1971 First orbit around another planet, in March , the probe Mariner -9. 7 December – 19 December 1972 Apollo 17, the last lunar mission in the Apollo program . May 31, 1975 Creation of the ESA , the European Space Agency.

22 October 1975 The Soviet probe Venera 9 retransmits the earliest photographs taken from the surface of another planet ( Venus ). 20 July 1976 The U.S. probe Viking -1 the first successful landing on operational in March . 12 April 1981 First flight of the Space Shuttle Columbia .

24 June 1982 Second European (after the German Sigmund Jähn , 1978) and the first French in space, Jean-Loup Chretien . 20 February 1986 Orbit of the first element of the Russian orbital station Mir .

6 March 1986 Probe International Vega 1 flew the Comet Halley 25 April 1990 Launch of the Hubble Space Telescope .

4 July 1997 The probe Mars Pathfinder lands on Mars, releasing the Sojourner rover. 20 November 1998 The first module of the International Space Station ( ISS ) is established.

19 February 2001 Willful destruction of the Mir station, which is precipitated in the atmosphere and is consumed. 28 April 2001 Dennis Tito the first space tourist .

15 October 2003 First manned flight into space in China by road rage Yang Liwei with the capsule Shenzhou 5

21 June 2004 First suborbital flight inhabited non-governmental part of the Ansari X Prize with SpaceShipOne . The latter won the 4 October 2004 in the second flight 2 . 14 January 2005 The European probe Huygens lands on Titan .

8 July 2011 Last launch of space shuttle Atlantis , which terminates the program of the U.S. space shuttles . Space programs by country

Space Program of China Space Program of the United States India’s space program Japan’s space program Space Program of Russia Space Program of the European Union France’s space program Space program in Australia Canada’s space program Personalities

Pioneers of space exploration

Konstantin Tsiolkovsky , a father of modern astronautics. Robert Esnault-Pelterie , French pioneer of interplanetary travel. Valentin Glushko , designer of Soviet rocket engine. Robert Goddard , designer of the first rockets. Sergei Korolev , father of the Soviet space program. Hermann Oberth , one of the fathers of modern astronautics. Eugen Sänger , worked on several U.S. programs. Konstantin Tsiolkovsky , a father of modern astronautics. Wernher von Braun , father of the U.S. space program. Famous astronauts Buzz Aldrin , second man to walk on the moon . Claudie Andre-Deshays , the first French space. Neil Armstrong , first man to walk on the moon . Patrick Baudry , first French to fly aboard the Space Shuttle . Jean-Loup Chrétien , first French space.

Buzz Aldrin , second man to walk on the moon . Michael Collins , pilot of the command module of Apollo 11 . Yuri Gagarin , first man in space. Mae Jemison , first black woman to travel in space aboard Space Shuttle Endeavour STS-47. Sergei Krikaliov , Russian cosmonaut, holds the record for cumulative time spent in space (803 days). Alexei Leonov , first man to “walk” in space. Yang Liwei , the first Chinese in space. Sally Ride , first American astronaut. Svetlana Savitskaya , the second astronaut in 1982. Alan Shepard , first American astronaut. Valentina Tereshkova , first woman in space in 1963. John Young , American astronaut who flew on Gemini , Apollo and space shuttle . Victims

Main article: Accidents and incidents related to space exploration . Officially, the conquest of space has killed 24 people so far (with the dog Laika). However, many people were killed in the former USSR , in China and Brazil by the explosion of rockets on the launch pad or rocket falling to the ground. The explosion of a rocket Ariane 5 had caused the fallout of potentially dangerous debris on uninhabited areas happily in French Guiana. Sputnik 2 ( 3 November 1957 ): the dog Laika died about seven hours after launch from stress and overheating, probably due to a failure of temperature control (no recovery was expected, however, some claiming that Laika was die of asphyxia or discharge of batteries would die with a portion of poisoned food) Ground training , ( 23 March 1961 ), died in a fire in a pressurized chamber. Valentin Bondarenko Apollo 1 ( 27 January 1967 ): Fire in a test on the launch pad killing three astronauts Virgil Grissom (he had narrowly escaped drowning on Mercury 4 ) Edward White Roger Chaffee Soyuz 1 ( 23 April 1967 ): parachute flare Vladimir Komarov Soyuz 11 ( 29 June 1971 ): depressurization during re-entry Georgi Dobrovolsky Viktor Patsayev Vladislav Volkov Challenger ( 28 January 1986 ): explosion at the launch Francis Scobee (Commander) Michael Smith (co-pilot) Gregory Jarvis (engineer) Judith Resnik Christa McAuliffe (teacher civil) Ronald McNair Ellison Onizuka Ground training ( 11 July 1993 ), drowned during training in a rescue operation Sergei Vozovikov Columbia ( 1 st February 2003 ): destroyed during re-entry Rick Husband (commander) William Mc Cool (co-pilot) Michael Anderson Kalpana Chawla ( Indian naturalized American ) David Brown Laurel Clark Ilan Ramon ( Israel ) To date, except for the dog Laika, there has never been a death in space. The deaths occurred either during training on the ground or during takeoff or during re-entry into the atmosphere . The NASA pays tribute to the victims through a memorial . The names of several of the astronauts used to baptize asteroids or geological formations on other celestial bodies. Several plaques were deposited on the moon by the Apollo missions, including by David Scott at the landing of Apollo 15 . The major programs

Apollo , “a small step for man … ” Ariane for European independence Constellation , to prepare the return to the Moon (canceled) Corona , spying from space Explorer , the first U.S. satellite Galileo , destination Jupiter Gemini , soon the moon? GIRD , the first Russian rockets. Helios , observations of the Sun Intercosmos ISS , symbol of cooperation in space Luna , study of the Moon Lunokhod 2 rovers on the surface of the Moon Mars Exploration Rover , two rovers on the surface of March Mercury , the beginning of space competition Mir , live in space Space Shuttle , the cargo space Pioneer , discovery of the solar system Salyut , Russian space station Shenzhou , “Divine Vessel” Skylab , U.S. space station Soyuz , and Progress cargo Sputnik , the first satellites Surveyor , explore the surface of the Moon V2 , the first operational rocket. VfR , the German precursor of the Astronautical Viking missions and the following March: the next frontier? Voskhod , walk in space Vostok , Man in Space Voyager , solar system exploration Zond , manned circumlunar project Manned missions

Launch of Soyuz TMA-5 from Baikonur The Vostok program The Mercury Program The Voskhod program The Soyuz program The Gemini program The Apollo program The Skylab The Space Shuttle The space station Mir The International Space Station (ISS) The Shenzhou program The Constellation Program List of manned missions between 1961 and 1986 List of manned missions between 1987 and 1999 List of manned missions between 2000 and 2010 Figures La Cité de l’Espace informs [ref. needed] a very symbolic figure was reached on 10 December 2006 as an astronaut in space was slender as a 1000 e crew of a space mission. This is Mark Polansky , 50, pilot of the space shuttle Atlantis for mission STS-98 in 2001 , space flight bound for the International Space Station (ISS) which lasted 13 days. For his second mission, STS-116 , he commanded the Shuttle Discovery , which also joined the ISS. For these 1000 members of a space mission, here are some remarkable or surprising figures: on the 1000 crew members, 446 different people including 99 Russians, 280 Americans, three Chinese, 64 of other nationalities, including 31 Europeans, including nine French; these 446 people, 168 have a single mission; 158 came out in the vacuum of space during their mission ( EVA ); the oldest at the time of flight was 78 years ( John Glenn ); these 446 people, 44 women with a French ( Claudie , godmother of the City of space); the youngest at the time of flight was 25 years ( Gherman Titov ); 18 were killed on a mission; the longest flight in a single mission (14 months – Valeri Poliakov ); 12 astronauts have walked on the moon among the 24 astronauts are left to our natural satellite; 2 astronauts have 7 missions ( Jerry Ross and Franklin Chang-Diaz ); 4 people have “offered” a place of “ space tourist “; Sergei Avdeyev has lived the longest in space, more than two years in several missions and three flights (it’s actually a mistake because Sergei Krikaliov broke that record in 2005 with 803 days combined); Two women were “Captain” of their mission ( Valentina Tereshkova and Eilleen Collins ); the orbital flight was the shortest one orbit ( Yuri Gagarin , the 12 April 1961 ). A total of Rights has passed – at December 10, 2006 – Space Mission in 718,266 hours and 17 minutes, or 29,927 days, that is to say nearly 82 years. Related articles

On the other Wikimedia projects: “Space exploration” on Wikinews (free news) Accidents and incidents related to space exploration Astronautics Astronomy Technological advances associated with the conquest of space Colonization of Space Conquest of the Moon Chronological list of countries launchers List of space agencies List of articles on space travel Space tourism

Constellation Program Jump to: navigation , search

Logo of the Constellation program. The Constellation program (in English : Constellation Program ) is a space exploration program of NASA abandoned in 2010, whose main objective was to send astronauts to the moon by 2020 for long-duration missions. This program materializes the strategy long-term U.S. space defined by President George W. Bush in January 2004 under the title Vision for Space Exploration to resume exploration of the solar system by manned missions. The Constellation program included the development of two new launch vehicles – Ares I and Ares V – and two spacecraft : Orion and the lunar module Altair . The program, in 2009, has lagged far behind its schedule and its objective has been challenged by those who view the world in March should be now the next phase of space exploration. The first flight of the rocket Ares I , the mission Ares I – X , was held successfully on 28 October 2009 . In late 2009, the Constellation program and the launch vehicle Ares I in particular, are challenged by the Augustine Committee to Review the U.S. manned space program. The Committee calls into question the ability of the particular NASA to keep the schedule adopted with the budget available and the choice of architecture selected. Several alternatives have been proposed, including a launcher derived from the space shuttle, a Delta IV / Atlas V launch vehicle and a private space. President Barack Obama announces a st February 2010 that he will propose the cancellation of the Constellation program. This abandonment is confirmed by the President October 11, 2010. Summary [ hide ] 1 The definition of objectives (2004) 2 The Constellation Program 2.1 Orion 2.2 Altair 2.3 Ares I 2.4 Ares V 2.5 The types of missions 2.5.1 trolley International Space Station 2.5.2 lunar mission 2.5.3 Missions to Mars 3 The development of the program 4 Planning 5 Progress 5.1 Ship Orion 5.2 spacesuits 5.3 Ares I launcher 4.5 Challenging the Constellation program by the Augustine Committee (October 2009) 6 Quit the program 7 Notes and references 8 See also 8.1 Bibliography 8.2 Internal Links 8.3 External Links The definition of objectives (2004)

Main article: Vision for Space Exploration .

Orion spacecraft approaching the International Space Station (artist)

Launch of a spacecraft Orion Ares 1 rocket by (artist)

Orion and Altair vessels are injected into their transfer trajectory to the Moon (artist)

The Constellation program’s launch compared to the space shuttle and Saturn V rocket (artist)

The Orion spacecraft in orbit around the Moon (artist)

The Altair lunar module on the Moon (artist)

Model of the Orion vehicle in the center Langley (2008) On 15 January 2004 , the U.S. President George W. Bush has released the long-term goals assigned to the U.S. space program in the field of solar system exploration and manned missions formalized through the program plan Vision for Space Exploration . The definition of this strategy is driven by two motivations: It is necessary to replace the fleet of space shuttles , old nearly three decades, who on two occasions, exploded in flight, killing its crew, and are very expensive to run. But the international space station must be served by men and material in the current phase of construction and when fully operational. The president wants to revive the success of the Apollo program by setting ambitious long-term and immediately engaging ways to reach them. He wants to give space exploration by man in the foreground. Taking the approach of President Kennedy , the president asked NASA to develop a program that allows to make extended stays on the moon by 2020. The experience gained on the moon must then be used to design and launch a manned mission to Mars. Also, space shuttle flights must stop in 2010, when the International Space Station to be completed. A new spacecraft to be developed to service the International Space Station. The Constellation program

To meet these objectives, NASA is in large part the scenario of the Apollo program : a spacecraft ( Orion ) is responsible for transporting the crew to orbit moon (and bring back) while a second vehicle , Altair , is dedicated to the moon landing and return to Orion. However, where the Apollo program used the only rocket Saturn V to send two vehicles to the Moon, the Constellation program includes two pitchers, one of which ( Ares I ) is dedicated to the launch of the manned capsule while the other ( Ares V ) up in Earth orbit and the lunar module rocket stage responsible for all speed to the Moon. In fact: The mass of the spacecraft to send to the moon has grown considerably to meet the more ambitious Constellation program. Sending a single rocket launcher need to develop a much more powerful than Saturn V. The technique of in-orbit rendezvous is perfectly mastered by NASA allowing to consider an in-orbit assembly of vehicles to the Moon, a scenario that had been removed Discount Judaica products because considered too risky at the time of the Apollo program . Orion should be used for non-lunar missions especially service to the international space station, which requires having an intermediate class launcher. A second feature of the program is the widespread electronic cigarette review use of existing components in order to limit the cost of the program. NASA is using, adapting, and rocket engines developed for the Saturn gov grants V rocket, the solid rocket boosters of the shuttle as well as many existing ground facilities. Finally, it is expected that several program components can be reused after reconditioning. The vehicles developed are: Orion Main article: Orion (spacecraft) . Orion is a manned spacecraft that was to be used both to service the International Space Station and missions to the Moon. It consists of a pressurized control module that can carry 4 (Moon) to 7 (ISS) astronauts and an unpressurized service module that provides the main propulsion and support functions. The control module uses the conical shape of the Apollo command module but has a volume of 15 m 3 or 2.5 times that of the Apollo module. Take-off, Orion is surmounted by a tower rescue responsible for the vehicle to safety in case of launch failure. All Orion has a mass of 20.5 tonnes, 8.5 tonnes for the control module, 3.7 for the service module and 8.3 for fuel. Altair Main article: Altair (spacecraft) . Altair is the module which will allow astronauts to land on the moon and then to take off, playing a role similar to the Apollo lunar module . It consists of a descent stage which ensures landing on the moon with a mass of 35 tons and an ascent stage of 11 tonnes. The propulsion is provided by the engines using a mixture liquid hydrogen / liquid oxygen. Compared to its predecessor, the Apollo lunar module , Altair has a living area of 32 m 3 (against 6.5 m 3 to Apollo) and includes a lock that does not require depressurizing the cabin for spacewalks . Altair must provide accommodation for four astronauts. Ares I Main article: Ares I . Ares I launch vehicle is designed to be placed in Earth orbit manned spacecraft Orion. It allows you to put 25 tons into low orbit. Its first floor is a propellant powder, the U.S. space shuttle lying (5 segments instead of 4) which gives it a more slender (94 meters high). The second floor is a new development using a rocket engine J-2 of the Apollo program in the simplified design and consuming a mixture liquid oxygen / liquid hydrogen . Ares V Main article: Ares V . Ares V is a heavy launcher, the class of the former rocket Saturn V . Culminating at 116 meters, its launch capability was calculated for the possible launch of lunar missions. It can put 71 tons on a transfer trajectory to the Moon or deposit 14 tons of cargo on the lunar surface. It consists of: a first stage powered by rocket engines 6 RS-68 of about 300 tons of thrust consuming a mixture liquid hydrogen / liquid oxygen legacy launcher Delta IV . two solid-fuel boosters of the space shuttle increased to 4 to 5 segments and a half. These boosters flank the first floor and are on takeoff. A second floor using the same engine as the J-2 rocket Ares I. Called EDS ( Earth Departure Stage ), this make t shirts floor is restartable and in charge of maneuvering in orbit and the lunar injection trajectory of the entire Orion and Altair. Ares V will also be responsible for initiating housing modules, vehicles and other equipment necessary for long-duration missions to the moon. The exceptional payload capacity of Ares V (188 tonnes in low earth orbit) should also be put to use for many missions that the limitations of current launch vehicles (25 tons and diameter of the cap) do not do: sending heavy spacecraft in the solar system, orbiting telescopes have a view of 8 meters or more for civilian or military ,…. The types of missions The first missions of the Constellation program would provide services to the International Space Station. By 2020 missions had been to the moon, first for short stays and for longer stays. Finally, at a date not fixed (there was talk in 2037), vehicles and launchers were to participate in the program first expeditions to Mars. Serving the international space station

Artist view of a mooring a vessel with the ISS Orion With the end of the space shuttle, one of the Criminal Attorney Chicago missions of the Constellation program was to ensure the rotation of the crews of the ISS . The first docking with the space station should have taken place during the mission Orion 2 . Lunar missions The lunar mission type planning a trip to the moon than 7 days, 4 more than the Apollo program . The astronauts, the number of four, were all down on the moon. A non-fixed maturity, NASA plans provided for the development of a set of modules (housing, rover, other equipment) deposited on the moon through several launches of Ares V (it can “deliver” up free auto insurance quotes to 15 tons of cargo on the moon). These facilities were intended to extend the stay of astronauts for missions that may well last for 210 days. These outposts could be installed near the south pole to benefit from both a more sun, so many nights shorter and less extreme temperatures, and, if the probe LCROSS and LRO is confirmed, the presence of water that may exist in areas continuously immersed in the dark-located. Missions to Mars Main article: Mission to Mars . This section is empty, insufficiently detailed or incomplete. Your help is welcome! Program execution

Concept in 2007 by Orion spacecraft configuration for a lunar mission. The heart of the project is the development of the spacecraft Orion (CEV in English: Crew Exploration Vehicle) and Ares I launch vehicle, which should both help to replace the space shuttle during the operational phase of the international space station. The scenario of use of launchers used by the U.S. military was finally abandoned. NASA currently has no set schedule for the development of specific modules required for long missions to the Moon and Mars. However, NASA Administrator ( Michael Griffin ) has important term life insurance quotes connections with The Planetary Society, a non-profit astronomical, which, unlike NASA has a program. This organization has promoted a three-story or “phases. “It was reasonable to imagine that Griffith would follow the proposal in three phases. The 1 st stage – Complete the design of Orion and Ares I to provide services to the international space station. The completion of the international space station and the removal of space shuttles in 2010 should free up significant financial resources that can be spent on the project Constellation. The two e phase – Complete the design of the modules required for extended missions to the Moon and Mars. At least four kinds of modules to be developed: a habitation module, a module for laboratory module and a module reserves to propel missions from Earth to Mars. Parallel missions to targets close to the Earth as the Lagrangian points are fitted to gain the experience necessary to phase 3. The 3 e phase – Finalize the design of spacecraft for landing high severity. Develop the new lunar module ( Altair ). After completing these objectives, an expedition to the Moon and Mars. Planning

Main article: List of Constellation missions . According to the schedule established in 2008, Orion 15 mission was to drop the module on the moon Altair 2 June 2019 (the last human presence on the lunar surface in 1972 during the last mission of the Apollo program : Apollo 17 ). 2024 to a forward base inhabited was to be created on the flanks of Shackleton crater at the lunar south pole 1 . Progress

Orion spacecraft In 2006, NASA selected the concept around which the Orion module will be built. When two bidders remained in the running: Lockheed Martin and Northrop Grumman. It Lockheed won the contract worth $ 5 billion. The NASA engineers will work with ergonomists to build the module as functional as possible. It is expected that the Orion module is available in 2015. Space suits On 12 June 2008 , a contract is made for the design and production of new spacesuits for this program 2 . Ares I launch vehicle Main article: Ares 1-X . The Ares 1-X launch vehicle is a test version of the Ares I launch vehicle features a second floor inert models of the Orion capsule scrabble word finder and tower rescue and first floor limited to 4 to 5 segments against the pitcher finalized. Ares-IX is still possible to validate a large number of technical choices made (control, stage separation, the dynamic behavior of the rocket ,….) and ground facilities and procedures for launch and recovery of the first floor . The first launch took spa covers place October 28, 2009. Questioning of the Constellation program by the Augustine Committee (October 2009) Main article: Augustine Commission . Following his inauguration, U.S. President Barack Obama asked the commission Augustine , created for this purpose 7 May 2009 and included specialists in astronautics from industry research and NASA, to examine the consequences of withdrawal of the U.S. space shuttle program on the International Space Station and conduct a review of the Constellation program faces both budget problems and planning. The committee submitted its report in October 2009. As for the Constellation program’s main conclusions are: NASA needs an additional annual budget of $ 3 billion in order to achieve the goals set in the program Constellation 3 . The launcher Ares I technical problems should be solved, but its development is greatly reduced late interest. The Committee is concerned the cost of production of the Orion payday loan spacecraft also under strong constraints (mass, cost of development) 4 . The committee believes that NASA must rely to a greater extent on private operators for everything related to the low orbit – launch vehicle and cargo ship manned capsule – and focus on targets located beyond the orbit low. The report confirms the interest of the exploration of Mars as a goal of the manned space program but supports the need for an intermediate step that could be the exploration of the Moon or a number of intermediate destinations such as the Lagrange points , the moons of Mars, flying a NEO (flexible path) 5 . Abandonment of the program

President Barack Obama announced on 1 February 2010 he will propose the cancellation of the Constellation program by advancing three grounds: a budget overrun, the delay of the timing and lack of innovations incorporated into the project. The budget released by the termination of the program, complete with a budget of $ 6 billion, is allocated between different activities of NASA. These are mainly the development of new space technologies, extending the life of the International Space Station from 2015 to 2020 and the creation of new unmanned spacecraft to explore the solar system. These funds must also be able to rebuild the satellite Orbiting Carbon Observatory lost in 2009 and boost support for space programs by private industry 6 , 7 . On October 11, 2010 President Obama supported the “NASA Authorization Act 2010″ which confirms the program to stop Constellation 8 . Notes and references

↑ ( en ) The base of the crater Shackleton , February 29, 2008 [ archive ] ↑ ( en ) NASA selects new space suits for astronauts in the Orion space capsule. [ archive ] , June 25, 2008, America.gov ↑ Final Report of the Commission Augustine on the NASA site [ archive ] , NASA, p. 97. Accessed 24 January 2010 ↑ Final Report of the Commission Augustine on the NASA site [ archive ] , NASA, p. 61. Accessed 24 January 2010 ↑ Final Report of the Commission Augustine on the NASA site [ archive ] , NASA, p. 69. Accessed 24 January 2010 ↑ 2011 Budget presentation by NASA Administrator Bolden NASACharlie [ archive ] , NASA, 1 st February 2010 ↑ Summary of the 2011 budget proposed by NASA February 1, 2010 [ archive ] , NASA, 1 st February 2010 ↑ NASA Obama signs up to new future [ archive ] , BBC News (October 11, 2010).

Micrometeorite Jump to: navigation , search

This article is an outline for the astronomy . You can share your knowledge by improving it ( how? ) as recommended by the related projects .

Micrometeorite from Antarctic sea ice A micrometeoroid is a small meteorite , a dust particle in space, usually weighing less than a gram , but a threat to space exploration. The risk is particularly great for satellites that remain in space for long periods. This presents design challenges for the future – still theoretical – space transportation at low cost such as space elevators and orbital airship . The micrometeorites are extremely common in space, especially near the Earth. Their speed relative to that of the spacecraft in orbit can be of the order of several kilometers per second, making it difficult to design vehicles to withstand impacts. The micrometeorites are very small dust grains, often metallic fragments released from impact between bodies bigger. They often date the formation of the solar system . The trajectories of micrometeorites are completely random, they cross Earth’s orbit every angle. micrometeoroids continually cross the orbits of space vehicles, and impacting at high speed. Despite their small size, they degrade the outer satellites and over time, threaten the niche affiliate marketing operation of their systems. Micrometeoroids can be easily found on Earth where water rain concentrates (eg roof gutters). Metal dust from other sources is relatively rare in the Earth’s surface, thus it is easy to separate them from ordinary dust by using a magnet . Micrometeorites represent more than 30 000 tons of debris being deposited each year on the surface of the Earth. In order to better understand their numbers and distribution, several spacecraft ( Lunar Orbiter 1 , Luna 3 and March 1 ) have micrometeorite detectors. Impacts caused by small objects traveling at very high speeds is the subject of study of terminal ballistics . Current techniques used to accelerate objects at such speeds include linear motors and peak load .

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (Redirected from NASA ) Jump to: navigation , search

Logo Official Name National Aeronautics and Space Administration Name in French Administration National Aeronautics and Space Headquarters 300 E Street SW, Washington, DC USA Creation 29 July 1958 Annual Budget 18.7 billion U.S. dollars (forecast 2010) General manager Charles F. Bolden Website http://www.nasa.gov/

Launch of the Saturn V rocket launch flagship project of the Apollo program at NASA. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration , better known by its abbreviation NASA (“Administration of the Aeronautics and Space “), is the government agency which is responsible for most of the civil space program of the United States . The research aircraft is also the domain of NASA. Since its inception in the late 1950s, NASA plays a leading role worldwide in the field of manned space flight, exploration of the solar system and space research. Among the most significant achievements of the agency include the manned space program Apollo , the Space Shuttle , the International Space Station (in cooperation with several countries), space telescopes like Hubble , the exploration of Mars by space probes Viking and Wed term life insurance quotes , and that of Jupiter and Saturn by the probes Pioneer , Voyager , Galileo and Cassini-Huygens . NASA was established on 29 July 1958 to administer and implement the projects within the civil space travel so far supported by the various branches of the armed forces of the United States to catch up with the lead taken by the Soviet Union . NASA takes the time to research centers of the NACA , previously oriented research in the field of aeronautics. It now has a budget of $ 17.6 billion (2009) and directly employs about 23,000 people and a large number of subcontractors spread between 10 space centers located primarily electric cigarette in the states of Texas , of California and Florida , the Alabama to Virginia and Washington . The missions are outstanding during the completion and operation of the international space station , the use and implementation of several telescopes space with James Webb Space Telescope , the probe spatial MESSENGER , New Horizons and Mars Science Laboratory have launched or weight loss pills about to be launched. NASA also plays a key role in current research on climate change . The manned space program at NASA since 2009 is being restructured following the withdrawal of the U.S. space shuttle scheduled for 2011 and the questioning of the Constellation program faces problems of design and financing. The Obama administration , following the recommendations of the Augustine Committee , decided to abandon plans to return astronauts to the Moon by 2020 in favor of a more gradual process of exploration which must be preceded by including extensive research in the field of propulsion. To overcome the current lack of means to launch, NASA plans to rely in the 2010s the private sector must support the service in low orbit of the International Space Station. Summary [ hide ] 1 History 1.1 Background to the creation of NASA 1.2 The 1960s 1.2.1 The manned space program: the Apollo program 1.2.2 The exploration of the solar system: recognition and first lunar planetary flybys 1.3 The years 1970-1980 1.3.1 Human Spaceflight: project launch of the shuttle 1.3.2 Exploration of the Solar System 1.4 The 1990s 1.4.1 Flight inhabited: the long genesis of the International Space Station 1.4.2 Exploration Solar “faster, better, cheaper” 1.4.3 Birth of Program Earth Observation 1.4.4 Space Telescopes 1.5 The 2000s 1.5.1 Exploration of the Solar System 1.5.2 Human Spaceflight: Shuttle stop and abandon the project back on the Moon 2 The U.S. space policy and NASA 2.1 The main activities of NASA 2.2 Evolution 2.3 Other American space agencies 3 The NASA space programs 3.1 The manned space program 3.2 The scientific program 3.2.1 Exploration of the Solar System 3.2.2 The space astronomy 3.2.3 The study of the Sun, the heliosphere and magnetosphere 3.2.4 The Earth Sciences 3.3 Space research 3.4 The Aerospace 4 Organization 4.1 Decision-making 4.2 The NASA space centers 5 Notes and references 5.1 Notes 5.2 References 5.3 Sources 6 See also 6.1 Internal Links 6.2 External Links History

Context of the creation of NASA

The program first Mercury manned space program at NASA: Launch of Freedom 7 with Alan Shepard on May 5 1961 . In 1956, the U.S. and the chicago dui lawyer USSR announced their separate ways, they will launch an artificial satellite as part of scientific work planned for the International Geophysical Year (July 1957 -December 1958) 1 . In the U.S., the development of the satellite and its launcher is supported by the Vanguard program , by a team of Navy , but the project started late and too ambitious, a string of failures. On October 4 , 1957, the Soviet Union was the first to place in orbit the satellite Sputnik 1 . It’s a shock to the leaders and the American public, until convinced of their technical superiority. The Air Force and U.S. Army at that time also have pay day loans space programs that use the work around the ballistic missile intercontinental: the team of Wernher von Braun , working on behalf of ‘Army, which finally managed to launch the first U.S. satellite, Explorer 1 , the 1 st February 1958 due to launch Juno I improvised from a ballistic missile Redstone . Although reluctant to invest heavily in the civil space, U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower decided on 29 July 1958 creating a civil space agency, NASA, which will allow to federate U.S. efforts to better counter the Soviet successes: the space race is run N 1 . The 1960 The manned space program: the Apollo program Main article: Apollo Program . NASA uses the research of the NACA , previously oriented research in the field of aviation in recent years but also work on the project launcher developed by the U.S. Army in particular in the field of aerodynamics and propulsion. Military projects and teams, including engineers led by Wernher von Braun, were quickly transferred to NASA. The first manned flight project developed by NASA is the Mercury program , initiated in 1958 before the creation of the agency, which will allow the launch of the first American in space. On 5 May 1961 , Alan Shepard makes first flight of fifteen minutes in the capsule Freedom 7 : but this is just a suborbital flight since NASA does not have at the time of a rocket powerful enough. President John F. Kennedy announces the Apollo program on May 25 , 1961, mainly to regain the prestige American undermined by the success of the Astronautics Soviet Union , at a time when the Cold War between two superpowers in full swing. NASA authorized by the president must be a man on the moon before the end of the decade. It was not until the mission Mercury-Atlas 6 of 20 February 1962 that John Glenn becomes the first American astronaut to orbit a loop around the Earth. Three other spaceflight took place in 1962 and 1963 2 .

Rendezvous between Gemini 6A and Gemini capsules 7 When the Mercury program ended in 1963, important aspects of space flight, necessary to carry out the lunar flights, are still not under control. The leaders of NASA launch Gemini program designed to develop these techniques without waiting for the development of highly sophisticated vessel of the lunar mission. Through this program must meet three objectives: master the techniques of locating, maneuvering and rendezvous; develop techniques for working in space during spacewalks ; study the effects of weightlessness on human physiology during long flights. The Gemini spacecraft, which was originally to be a simple upgrade of the Mercury wedding ring capsule, is a sophisticated ship 3.5 tons (against a ton about the ship Mercury), capable of flying with two astronauts for two weeks. The Gemini capsule was launched by a rocket Titan II missile in the U.S. Air Force converted into a pitcher. However, the program encounters problems of development. But in late 1963, everything is back to normal and two unmanned flights take place in 1964 and early 1965. The first manned Gemini 3 carries astronauts Virgil Grissom and John Young March 23, 1965. During the next mission, astronaut Edward White made the first U.S. spacewalk. Eight other missions, interspersed with incidents of no consequence, extending to November 1966: they allow to develop techniques for rendezvous and docking, to make long flights ( Gemini 7 is almost 14 days in orbit) and perform many other experiments. After the Gemini program, the United States have caught up on the USSR 3 . In the area of launch vehicles , NASA is developing for the Apollo family of launchers heavy Saturn . The most powerful model, Saturn V , used to place 118 tons into low orbit, a record never equaled since. It is designed to launch the two ships of the expedition moon: the Apollo spacecraft and the Apollo lunar module responsible for transporting astronauts to the lunar surface. Part of the success of the Apollo program originates from the development of a new type of propulsion using liquid hydrogen, whose development began in the late 1950s in the development stage Centaur .

Charles Conrad (Apollo 12) and the probe Denver Divorce Attorney Surveyor 3 on the lunar surface Two serious accidents occur during the Apollo program : the fire ground the spacecraft Apollo 1 crew perished which burned and which caused a delay of nearly two years of the calendar and the explosion of an oxygen tank vessel Space Apollo 13 the crew survived by using the lunar module as a rescue ship. To reach the moon, a method bold lunar orbital rendezvous is successful, requires to have two spacecraft with Lunar Module for the moon landing. Giant Saturn V rocket of 3000 tons , is being developed for launch vehicles of the lunar expedition. The program uses a substantial budget (135 billion dollars in 2005 value) and mobilizes up to 400,000 people. On 21 July 1969 , the goal is reached by two of the three crew members of the mission Apollo 11 , Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin . Five other missions arise later on other sites and lunar stay there up to three days. These expeditions can bring 382 kilograms of moon rock and set up several batteries of scientific instruments. The astronauts have conducted observations in situ during excursions on the lunar surface for a period of up to 8 hours, assisted on from Apollo 15 an all-terrain vehicle, the lunar rover . The six missions that landed on the moon have reported numerous scientific data. The exploration of the solar system: recognition lunar and planetary flybys first Parallel to the Apollo program, NASA launched several programs to refine its knowledge of the spatial and the lunar terrain. This information is necessary for the design of spacecraft and prepare for landing on the moon. In 1965, three satellites Pegasus are placed into orbit by a rocket Saturn I to assess the danger posed by micrometeorites and the results will be used to size the protection of the Apollo. The spacecraft Ranger (1961-1965), after a long series of failures, brought back from the end of 1964, a series of good quality photos of the lunar surface that identify sites suitable for landing 4 . The Lunar Orbiter program , consisting of five sensors that are placed in orbit around the Moon in 1966-1967, complete this work: a photographic coverage of 99% of the lunar surface is achieved, the frequency of micrometeorites in the suburbs moon is determined and the intensity of cosmic radiation is measured. The program also helps validate the operation of network telemetry . The measurements indicate that the gravitational field is much less homogeneous Moon as the Earth orbits making dangerous at low altitudes. The phenomenon underestimated subsequently reduced to 10 km altitude orbit Lem Apollo 15 the crew was asleep, while the safety limit was set at 15 km to dispose of a sufficient margin over relief 5 . On June 2, 1966, the probe Surveyor 1 makes the first soft landing on the moon providing valuable information and reassurance on the consistency of the lunar soil (the soil is relatively firm) which allows to size the landing gear of the lunar module . Despite the priority given to the Apollo program and lunar exploration, NASA also launched during this period several missions to other planets of the solar system. Space probes in the 1960s are small and rudimentary and it was not until the following decade to have sensors capable of extensive scientific investigations. Reliability is low as they are usually sent in pairs. In 1962 the mission Mariner 2 became the first spacecraft to perform an overview of another planet ( Venus ). Mariner 4 passes the first flyby of Mars in 1964. Three other probes Mariner pass an overview of Venus in 1967 and 1969. The years 1970-1980

Launch of Space Shuttle Columbia April 12, 1981. Spaceflight: launch of the shuttle In the field of manned flight period of fierce competition with the Soviet Union ended in the early 1970s with the last Apollo mission and the abandonment by the Soviet manned lunar program. A warming of relations with the USSR was symbolically sealed by theft Soviet-American Project Apollo-Soyuz in 1975. In this new context, in the absence of international issue, U.S. President Nixon and Congress refused to extend the financial effort for the Apollo program: the space agency’s budget, which peaked at 4.4% the budget is federal in 1965 falling rapidly. The space station Skylab , a space station designed to lower costs by recycling components of the Apollo program is launched. Three crews will occupy successively in 1973-1974 by using their remaining stock at the launch of launch Saturn IB and Apollo spacecraft. But the station was then abandoned due to lack of budget and will be destroyed on re-entering the atmosphere in 1979. NASA calls for an ambitious manned space program should be limited to project the space shuttle , a reusable vehicle that aims to reduce significantly the cost of the orbit. The green light is snatched from the makers in 1972 by including in the specifications of the shuttle needs of Defence and revising downward the original ambitions of the program. Development, longer than expected, will continue until early next decade. Columbia , the first of four space shuttle, first flew on 12 April 1981 . The project is a successful technique but the operational costs of the shuttle are much higher than was expected. The catastrophe of Challenger on 28 January 1986 challenging the dogma of any shuttle and conventional launchers, which had been abandoned, must be restored to function. The shuttle leaves in particular the launch of commercial satellites.

History of the NASA budget as% of federal spending 6 While relations with the Soviet Union deteriorated again, President Ronald Reagan asked in April 1983 at NASA to launch a project space station devoted to scientific research and which is permanently occupied. He announced the 25 January 1984 , during his annual speech on the state of the Union , the United States will undertake its construction in cooperation with other countries 7 . The project cost is then estimated at eight billion dollars. Solar system exploration

The Viking-2 lander on the Martian soil The space race between the two space powers also affects planetary exploration. The Soviet Union managed with the probe Venera 7 (1970) the first landing on another planet in the solar system. NASA in turn chooses to focus its exploration program on the planet in March , which, unlike Venus, is home to perhaps the life that could be in the future a manned mission. While the USSR devotes an entire program to Venus, NASA will launch during the decade only dual mission to the planet: the proposed Pioneer Venus , in the study since 1965, suffered several delays due to budget cuts before receiving the green light in 1975 and be launched in 1978. The project will be successful, comprises firstly four atmospheric probes a second orbiter will transmit data until 1992. In the mid-1960s, NASA is working on an ambitious mission to Mars, the Voyager project, which will prove too complex and too expensive. Instead have developed the spacecraft Mariner 8 and Mariner 9 , which were launched in 1971. The rocket Mariner 8 Mariner 9 failure but reached Mars in 1972 and became the first spacecraft to enter orbit around another planet. But to answer the question of life on Mars must send a probe to the Martian soil that it can make direct measurements. The two probes Viking program were launched to Mars: The program has two landers and two orbiters and is the first project of planetary exploration. The planned launch in 1973 was postponed to 1975 due to budget problems and cost overruns developments. The two landers on the Martian soil reached in 1976 and transmit data until 1982. For their part, orbiters will work well beyond the expected life until 1980. As part of the plan long-term exploration of Mars, the Viking project was to be followed by an orbiter to study the climate of Mars and a mobile rover ( rover ). For reasons both financial and political, these projects will be released only in the 1990s with the Mars Observer orbiter and in the 2000s with the rovers Spirit and Opportunity .

Voyager The only inner planet that has not been explored in the early 1970′s Mercury . NASA decided to develop Mariner 10 for this purpose. The probe was launched in 1973 and completed its mission in 1975 after performing as expected three flybys of the planet. Mariner 10 was the first spacecraft to use the technique of gravity assist . In the late 1960′s NASA also plans to launch probes to the outer planets . An alignment of the planets, very rare, must occur in late 1970 enabling a single spacecraft to perform an overview of the four outer planets. This event is behind the project Grand Tower Suite or Outer Planets Grand Tour Project which plans to launch four to five probes. But this project is too costly Phen375 abandoned in early 1970 and replaced in 1972 by the Voyager program (which has nothing to do with the eponymous program to Mars). At that time astronomers do not know whether a probe can slip through the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter , and if the magnetic field of Jupiter, particularly powerful, poses a risk to the operation of a spacecraft. To answer these questions the project probes Pioneer 10 and Pioneer locksmiths 11 was launched in 1968. Pioneer 10 was launched in 1972 and is the first spacecraft to fly by Jupiter in December 1973. A year after the twin probe Pioneer 11 leaves turn fender flares Earth in April 1973 and flew by Jupiter in late 1974 prior to the first survey of Saturn in 1979. Recognition made by the Pioneer probes paved the way for probes Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 both launched in 1977. Voyager 1 reached Jupiter in 1979, Saturn in 1980 and collected a lot of unpublished data. Voyager 2 flew over the two planets in 1979 and 1981 and managed to complete the Grand Tour, passing close to Uranus in 1986 and Neptune in 1989. The Voyager probes are among the most successful projects of NASA. In the late 1970s, the situation in NASA deteriorates sharply. After completion of the Apollo program many employees to leave the agency engagement ring and the funds that remained are largely absorbed by the project of the Space Shuttle. Politicians are not martial arts denver interested in the space program. Under these conditions few new tasks are emerging.

Galileo In 1974 a project originally called Jupiter Orbiter / Probe (JOP) and later renamed Galileo is proposed but it is beginning to be funded in 1977. The probe should be launched in 1982 by the space shuttle, but the delay in the development of the shuttle launch pushes until 1986, the government Reagan plans at a time to cancel the program while the machine is completed 90% and it will be very important official pressure to save it. The Challenger accident pushes its launch until 1989 and the probe reaches the Jupiter system in 1995 where she began her mission to be completed in 2003. The second mission designed in the late 1970s and early 1980s is the SEE probe (Venus Orbiting Imaging Radar) must perform a mapping of Venus with its radar. Further budget reductions result in its cancellation. Another research probe bound to the Sun International Solar Polar Mission is canceled at the same time. To replace American scientific experiments are placed on the European probe twin Ulysses . In 1979 the NASA spacecraft that was to be launched to Halley’s Comet in conjunction with the European probe Giotto is also canceled.

Magellan during launch from the Space Shuttle In 1983 a new strategy based on the realization of sensors at low cost has been set up by NASA. Four missions are proposed: a simplified task SEE, a Mars orbiter, the probe Comet Rendezvous Asteroid Flyby (CRAF) and the probe Saturn Orbiter / Titan Probe (SOTP) . SEE probe was reconfigured with a payload reduced to a single instrument and using parts of previous probes. The new probe which was renamed Magellan to be launched in 1988 but not finally in 1989 following the Challenger accident. Magellan successfully fulfills its mission by conducting a high resolution mapping of soil of Venus between 1990 and 1992. Ronald Reagan in 1983 announced the launch of the Strategic Defense Initiative and in 1984 the construction of the Space Station Freedom, nucleus of the future International Space Station . In the years following the budget for space probes is increasing. Under the 1984 budget starts the development of March Geoscience / Climatology Orbiters (MgCO) , which later became Mars Observer and must take over the program Viking and Mariner 9. The launch is scheduled for 1990 postponed to 1992 because of the Challenger accident. Unfortunately contact with the probe is lost when it is inserted into orbit around Mars. At that time, the error is the most expensive program of NASA’s space probes and the first probe that was defeated in 1967. Its mission is largely taken up by the probe Mars Global Surveyor and 2001 Mars Odyssey launched in the late 1990s and early 2000s. A third probe Mars Climate Orbiter , which was to complete the coverage of the two previous gear is a failure. As part of the 1990 budget, funds are made available for projects Cassini-Huygens (former SOTP) and CRAF spacecraft bound for a comet. The increased cost of the space station and heavy budgetary constraints in 1991 to restrict the payload CRAF two instruments then the probe itself was canceled in 1993. Cassini is built and cons launched in 1997. The probe successfully completed its data collection in the Saturn system that achieved in 2004. Another mission milestone of this period is the Hubble Space Telescope , which was built in 1977 and was originally scheduled for launch in 1986. The 1990 Spaceflight: the long genesis of the international space station Main article: International Space Station .

Mars Global Surveyor Political change in Russia can build a space cooperation agreement between the United States and Russia ratified in late 1992 by Presidents George Bush and Boris Yeltsin : American astronauts will perform long-term stays in the station Mir . NASA, which implements the agreement as a repetition of future flights to the space station, r. 400 million in cost of living in the Russian space agency. Several successive missions between 1995 and 1998 during which eleven American astronauts spend 975 days aboard the aging Mir space station. On nine occasions, the U.S. space shuttles resupply the Mir station and took over the crew. Late 1993, Russia is also becoming a major player in the program of the International Space Station, which until now could not start due to lack of consensus on funding. The Russian space agency must provide four pressurized modules, while the vessels participating in the supply and the changing of crews. The new version of the space station should have two subsets: the U.S. inherited from the Freedom Project and based on the Russian “Mir 2″ planned successor to Mir. The green light for the start of construction is given in 1998. NASA to Lockheed Martin is developing a prototype shuttle ½ wide. The X-33 is a single-stage machine, fully reusable. It incorporates a motor aerospike not diverge. But in February 2001, after spending $ 1.3 billion project is abandoned. Exploration Solar “faster, better, cheaper” In early 1990 two spacecraft of NASA expensive (nearly $ 1 billion each) wipe failures. Mission Mars Observer failed completely, while an antenna problem severely limits the amount of data transmitted by the probe Galileo . In the political, solar exploration projects that require lengthy and involve a significant element of risk are not well seen and is asked NASA to reduce the budget for each mission. The director of NASA’s Daniel Goldin at that time adopted the motto “faster, better, cheaper” ( faster, better, cheaper ), which is reflected in particular by the establishment of the program Discovery : Discovery missions are smaller and more specialized scientific instruments prevail less in return, but are less expensive, less complex and are developed more quickly. The first two probes were launched in 1996: NEAR to approaching a comet and Mars Pathfinder is a technology demonstrator. During the same decade will also be launched lunar Bankruptcy probe Lunar Prospector in 1998 and Stardust in 1999. The new slogan is also applied to existing programs. Following the failure of Mars Observer, it was decided to send more probes to Mars. Beginning in 1994 and for 10 years a new probe was from all 26 months. Mars Global Surveyor which incorporates many of the instruments on Mars Observer is the first to be launched in 1996, the mission is a success and probe will provide data until 2006. But the following missions Mars Climate Orbiter (1998) and Mars Polar Lander (1999) are both failures. The dogma of “faster, better, cheaper” is called into question. The next mission 2001 Mars Odyssey (2001) will be a success but now the spacecraft will be better funded. Birth Program EO

Photo taken by the Aqua satellite show the reduction in the size of the polar ice (2007) In the late 1980′s NASA attempts to launch next to the Space Station Freedom and other important projects have long blocked. Criticism of the authorities vis-à-vis the NASA after the Challenger shuttle accident are partially offset by the public in the role played by the space agency in the confirmation of the hole in the ozone layer which was discovered in 1985. In this context, NASA decided to make the Earth Observation a major component of its program: the project “Mission to Planet Earth” ( Mission to Planet Earth ) is proposed in 1987 and formally established in 1990. Its core is formed by the Earth Observing System (EOS), it must begin with the launch of two large satellites sophisticated. For budgetary reasons the schedule was revised in early 1990: three medium-sized satellites must now form the heart of EOS. The satellite Terra was launched in 1999, Aqua in chicago dui lawyer 2002 and Aura in 2004. However, the first spacecraft whose mission meets the environmental concerns at the root of Mission to Planet Earth is the satellite UARS . Launched in 1991 it enables NASA to provide key data on the destruction of the ozone layer and is responsible for monitoring the implementation by States of the Montreal Protocol , which prohibits the use of destructive gases. Other important tasks of EOS satellites are TOPEX / Poseidon , launched in 1992 and Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission launched in 1997 with contributions confirm the essential role of satellite in weather forecasting and in particular its most violent. In the early 1990′s concerns about global warming take precedence over the work relating to the ozone layer. The starting point for research on the subject is a series of work in the early 1970s to address environmental concerns raised by the very high frequency projected launches of the space shuttle that could affect the composition of the stratosphere . Laws are passed to the U.S. Congress in 1975 and 1977 expanding the area of intervention of NASA environmental research. A new class of satellites to Earth observation is implemented from 1972 with the launch of Earth Resources Technology Satellite renamed later, Landsat 1. The probe Viking in 1976 had mapped almost the entire planet Mars to identify sites suitable for landing. The research method used, which until then had been applied to other planets, will be implemented for the first time for Earth observation satellite with Seasat , launched in 1978. In the 1980s new theories are emerging, who liken the Earth to a global system. Emergent also comparative research between the planets, made in the context of robotic missions on the Martian soil and flybys of Venus by probes Mariner in the 1960s. Thus it is vital to carry out missions of scientific exploration of Earth to define global models which led to the establishment of the “Earth Science Program” ( Earth Science Program ) 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 . Space telescopes

The Hubble Space Telescope To explore the world near and far, NASA launched a number of scientific satellites and space telescopes including OAO (1972-1981), HEAO (1977-79), IRAS (1983), FUSE (1999-2007) and STEREO (since 2006). The study of cosmic microwave background is at the heart of the missions launched around 1989 with COBE (1989-93) and WMAP (since 2001). As part of its Great Observatory Programs , NASA launched four space telescopes to study the distant universe in all wavebands important. The Hubble Space Telescope launched in 1990 covers the visible light, the ultraviolet radiation and infrared . The Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory specializes in astronomy gamma was launched in 1991, followed by telescope X-ray Chandra in 1999 and finally the infrared telescope Spitzer Space Telescope in 2003. They are being replaced by more powerful telescopes: the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope (2008) and the James Webb Space Telescope (about 2013). The 2000s Solar system exploration The 2000s is exceptional for exploration activity in the solar system by NASA gear with the launch of 12 interplanetary probes and the preparation of three missions to be launched in 2011. This is partly due to the decision taken during the previous decade to perform missions, smaller and more numerous. Mars exploration is at the heart of this activity: the orbiter 2001 Mars Odyssey (2001) is followed by the two rovers Wed (Spirit and Opportunity) (2003), the orbiter MRO (2005), the lander Phoenix ( 2007) while the rover Mars Science Laboratory , the largest budget of the decade originally programmed in 2009, was rejected in 2011. All missions are successful and significantly advance our knowledge of Mars. The spacecraft MESSENGER (2004) is to study for the first time in detail on the planet Mercury . The small bodies are not forgotten with the impactor Deep Impact (2004) launched to a comet orbiter and Dawn (2007) which is responsible for exploring the two largest bodies of the asteroid belt . The only failure of the decade can be attributed to the small probe CONTOUR (2002) in charge of flying several comets and probably suffered a failure of its propulsion system. For the outer planets, the mission of the probe Cassini-Huygens sent to the Saturnian system a decade ago was a complete success. New Horizons (2006) has embarked on a long journey during which should bring it close to Pluto in 2014. Finally as part of the Constellation program two reconnaissance missions are launched to the moon, the orbiter Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (2009) and the impactor LCROSS (2009). Spaceflight: Shuttle stop and abandon the project back on the Moon

The International Space Station in February 2010 The space shuttle Columbia disintegrated on a first in February 2003 resulting in the death of his crew and an interruption of 29 months of space shuttle missions. Logistical problems caused by this decision led to a temporary cessation of work of assembling the International Space Station and a reduction of the permanent crew who occupies it. In response to this accident on U.S. President George W. Bush has released 15 January 2004 payment protection insurance the new long-term goals assigned to the U.S. space program in the field of solar system exploration and manned missions, which is formalized through the program plan Vision for Space Exploration . The definition of this strategy is driven by two motivations: It is necessary to develop new vessels to replace the fleet of space shuttles , aged nearly three decades, two of which exploded in flight, killing their crews and are very expensive to run. Yet the international space station must be served by men and material in the current phase of construction and when fully operational. The plan provides for space shuttle flights stop in 2010, when the International Space Station to be completed. A new spacecraft to be developed to service the International Space Station. The exploitation of the latter must stop in 2015 instead of 2020, freeing budgetary resources for new programs. The president wants to revive the success of the Apollo program by setting ambitious long-term goals and identifying ways to achieve them. He wants to give space exploration by man in the foreground. Taking the approach of President Kennedy , the president asked NASA to develop a program that allows to make extended stays on the moon by 2020. The experience gained on the moon must then be used to design and launch a manned mission to Mars. The Constellation program , technically quite close to the Apollo program was launched that year by NASA.

Model of the Orion spacecraft component of the Constellation program (2008) NASA decided in parallel with the Constellation program to appeal to private supplies and relief crews to the International Space Station pending the availability of components of the Constellation program: two companies selected in 2006 and 2008 in the framework of the COTS . But their commitment is limited to resupply of the station. The crew is still based on the launcher Ares I and Orion with the ship availability date back more. The viability of the Constellation program and the technical choices made are increasingly challenged. President Barack Obama newly elected in 2009 free ipad asked the Commission Augustine , created for the occasion, to assess the U.S. manned space program. This highlights the lack of ambition of the Constellation program, whose objectives are close to the Apollo program. Funding is clearly not enough (missing $ 3 billion per year). The launcher Ares I , available too late, is considered of little interest. The committee believes that NASA must rely to a greater extent on private operators for everything related to the low orbit – launch vehicle and cargo ship manned capsule – and focus on targets located beyond the low orbit. The committee suggested to extend the use of the space shuttle beyond 2010. Taking the opposite of the plan launched by President Bush, the committee recommends an extension until 2020 of the life of the international space station to recoup the investment. In terms of objectives, the report confirms the interest of the exploration of Mars as the ultimate goal of manned space program but supports the need for an intermediate step that could be the exploration of the Moon or a number of intermediate destinations such as the Lagrange points , the moons of Mars, an overview of the NEO ( flexible path ). Finally, the committee made a number of observations on the organization of NASA, suggesting improvements in this area 13 . President Obama and NASA take into account the Committee’s conclusions Relevant Life Policy and decide virtually the cancellation of Constellation in early 2010 with adjustments intended to limit the impact on employment within NASA. This abandonment is confirmed by the President October 11, 2010 as part of the validation of the “2010 NASA Authorization Act” 14 . U.S. space policy and NASA

The main activities of NASA

Proposed NASA budget 2011-2015 (February 2010) $ million NASA spends about a quarter of its financial activities purely scientific. These fall into four themes in order of decreasing budget are: The Earth Sciences which include the study of different atmospheric layers, the surface of the Earth and the space environment from space. The study of planets and other celestial bodies in the solar system with spacecraft. The Astrophysical dominated by the construction and operation of space telescopes. the study of the Sun. About 20% of the budget is spent on support activities: management of space centers, maintenance and construction equipment. Aeronautics research, original activity of the agency weighs a relatively short (a few percent of the budget). Finally almost 50% of the budget is directly or indirectly to manned space flight. This part of the business is particularly volatile. Evolution The budget for the year 2009 amounted to $ 17.6 billion. President Obama in February 2010 the budget from 2011 to 2015 15 . The American space agencies The U.S. space activity civil and military is divided among several agencies. These include NASA has only the second budget in order of importance 16 : The Department of Defense (DoD) has a space budget higher than NASA (about $ 27 billion in 2008) dedicated to particular military satellite communications, weather, early warning and satellite navigation. the National Reconnaissance Office (NRO) organization is responsible for U.S. reconnaissance satellites and listening (Budget $ 9 billion in 2008) The NGA ( National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency responsible for the collection of satellite imagery for the U.S. defense) (Budget of $ 2 billion in 2008) The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), which provides climate data, designs and manages the weather satellites in geosynchronous ( GOES ) and sun-synchronous ( TIROS ). In 1983 , NOAA has taken responsibility for the program Landsat program for 1984 and Tropical Ocean and Global Atmosphere (TOGA). Space programs of NASA

The manned space program

Assembly of the International Space Station The manned space program of NASA is being restructured in early 2010 after the cancellation of the Constellation program and the decision confirmed the space shuttle in late 2010. NASA will have a few years rely heavily on its partners to continue the program of the International Space Station and in particular on the Russian space agency. The COTS program has not resulted and will clearly not be ready in time to supply the International Space Station in late 2010. Noting the development challenges facing the ship Orion, NASA decided to entrust the beginning of 2010 to private operators Plastic Storage Bins over crew: it has selected the 1 st February as part of the program CCDev companies Boeing and Sierra Nevada Corporation : both companies must car transport company develop a means of transport ( spacecraft and launch vehicle ) to bring the astronauts aboard the International Space Station and to ensure their return to Earth. Construction of the Constellation program launcher is stopped but the ship Orion development continues, but in early 2010. The scientific program The scientific program How to Unlock iPhone represents 26% of the 2011 budget is just over $ 5 billion. The exploration of the solar system

The robot MSL mission is the most complex program of solar system exploration In 2011 NASA plans to spend 1 486 million or 8% of its budget to missions of solar system exploration. In 2010, 11 sensors are in operation and five spacecraft to be launched by 2013 (slightly more than one probe per year): The Mars rover MSL , the orbiter Juno (Jupiter) and the lunar orbiter GRAIL in 2011, the Mars Orbiter MAVEN orbiter and lunar LADE in 2013. The various projects are supported by six separate programs that combine missions with destinations and costs consistent 17 , 18 . The program of the outer planets (Outer Planets Program) in 2010 is limited to the mission Cassini-Huygens was launched in 1997 to study Saturn and its moons since 2004. This mission is very ambitious (3.3 billion dollars including 2.6 supported by NASA) conducted in cooperation with the European Space Agency should be extended until 2017. Another task extremely sophisticated EJSM , conducted in cooperation with the European Space Agency, Japan and Russia is now in pre-study and its funding estimated at $ 4.5 billion is not yet complete. Its aim is to study Jupiter and its moons in particular to Europe 19 . The planet in March is the subject of a separate program. Three missions are underway. Mars Odyssey orbiter is one that has been studying the geology of Mars in 2002 and research in particular the presence of traces of water. MRO orbiter is heavy (more than 2 tons ), carrying a particularly powerful camera, which entered service in 2006 and whose main mission is to provide a detailed mapping of Mars. The two rovers Wed , Spirit and Opportunity continue their mission of exploration ground started in 2004 which was extended several times. Spirit, which stalled in 2009, now works as a fixed station. Two new missions are being prepared. Mars Science Laboratory (renamed Curiosity), rover 775 kg (against 185 kg for the rovers MER) must survey the planet Mars, carrying 70 kg of scientific instruments, is the project as complex and most expensive ($ 1.7 billion) last decade. It should help scientists determine whether life could exist on Mars and to refine the study of climate and geology of the planet. Initially scheduled for launch in 2009 was rejected in 2011. MAVEN (Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution) is an orbiter to be launched to Mars in 2013 to study its atmosphere. Finally NASA plans to launch missions on the horizon 2016-2018 in cooperation with the European Space Agency in particular in the framework of the ExoMars 20 .

New Horizons launched in 2006 to Pluto must approach it in 2014. The New Frontiers program includes ambitious mission whose cost is still less than 700 million USD. The first mission of this program, New Horizons , was launched in 2006 and has to study Pluto and the outer solar system that is expected to reach in 2014. Juno , whose launch is planned for 2011, should be placed on a polar orbit around Jupiter to study the magnetic field of the planet. The next mission should be selected from among three candidates in 2011: In-Situ Explorer Venus a lander to study the composition and characteristics of the surface of Venus , Lunar South Pole-Aitken Basin Sample Return , which aims to report on Earth a sample of the ancient lunar crust that is extracted near the south pole lunar and Comet Surface Sample Return to Earth to bring back samples of a comet nucleus taken from one or more parts of the nucleus and in the tail of the comet 21 . Next mission complex, costly and time consuming to develop but this is rare, NASA developed in the Discovery program missions whose costs must be less than $ 425 million and the deadline for development should not exceed 36 months. The number of scientific instruments is reduced and the development is assigned to one team. Discovery missions are operational probe MESSENGER , launched in 2008, to be put into orbit around Mercury in 2011 to study and map, Dawn launched in 2007 to be placed in orbit around the asteroid Vesta and Ceres to study, Stardust , which in the context of secondary NExT mission to photograph the comet Tempel 1 , Deep Impact , which in the context of the mission school DIXI must approach the comet Hartley 2 in November 2010, Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3), instrument on board the Indian lunar probe Chandrayaan-1 mission which was completed in 2009 but whose data are being analyzed and ASPERA-3 instrument on board the probe Mars Express , which studies the interaction between the wind sun and atmosphere of the planet in March . The probe GRAIL , which will be launched in 2011 specifically to study the gravitational field and the internal solar power structure of the Moon . Two recent projects were selected: the development of the instrument Strofio who must analyze the atmosphere of Mercury, which will be shipped on the probe BepiColombo the European Space Agency and the instrument Lara, bakery for analyzing the internal structure of Mars, the probe carrier which has not yet been identified 22 . Missions to small solar system bodies (Research and Analysis Program) include U.S. participation in the European mission Rosetta and the Japanese mission Hayabusa (provision of the telecommunications network long distance Deep Space and the monitoring of near-Earth objects 23 ). Several small spacecraft have been launched or will be launched towards the Moon. They were, among others, support the Constellation program . Now these missions are only intended to increase knowledge of our satellite. These probes RSO who has been observing since the lunar orbit in 2009, LADE , a spacecraft that is studying the thin atmosphere of the moon and be launched in 2013 and finally participation in international project ILN a network project lunar ground station responsible for collecting geophysical data now being studied 24 . The space astronomy

The telescope JWST has a primary mirror 6.5 meters in 2014 to replace Hubble In early 2010 NASA has 16 telescopes and space observatories operational and plans to launch NuSTAR in 2012, JWST in 2014 and an instrument onboard the Japanese probe ASTRO-H in 2014. Funding for space astronomy in 2011 accounted for 6% of the budget is 1 076 million $ 17 , 25 . The Hubble Space Telescope is the most famous space telescope of NASA that launched in 1990 it must remain active for several more years with the last maintenance operation performed using the space shuttle in 2009. For studies on the history of the universe and is assisted by the infrared telescope Spitzer launched in 2003 to be joined in 2014 by the JWST : the infrared telescope with a primary mirror 6.5 meters in diameter is Plastic Storage Containers an international heavy 4.5 billion including $ 3.5 supported by NASA. It also has a major participation in the European telescope Herschel launched in 2009. The second ongoing project, SOFIA is a telescope infrared airborne developed with the German Space Agency and installed aboard a Boeing 747 26 . Several NASA space observatories collect data to answer fundamental questions about the origins of the universe: Chandra telescope x-ray launched in 1999 and GLAST observatory gamma developed with several other space agencies and launched in 2008. NASA is one of the participants of the European Monitoring Planck launched in 2009 to study the cosmic microwave background in the field of microwave . NASA estimated in 2010 three new missions: LISA in cooperation with the European Space Agency for the observation of gravitational waves , JDEM dedicated to observing the effects of dark energy and IXO observatory co-funded by ESA and JAXA affected the study of black holes 27 . The telescope Kepler , launched in 2009 is devoted to the search for exoplanets . NASA also uses this research to the Keck telescope on Earth it is one of the owners. Two other missions are under study: SIM Space Observatory using the techniques of interferometry and a special instrument which equips the ground-based telescope Large Binocular Telescope 28 . Many telescopes still active have contributed to the development of new technologies: SWIFT is a gamma-air observatory launched in 2004. WMPA 2001 has been studying the cosmic microwave background in the field of microwave . GALEX is a telescope ultraviolet launched in 2003 . Finally NASA is a co-participant in the X-ray telescope Japanese Suzaku launched in 2005. WISE , launched in December 2009 for a mission of six months, performs a mapping of infrared sources in search of the least luminous galaxies, stars cooler located land in the suburbs and asteroids that are in the solar system. Several other projects are at various stages of development: NuSTAR to detect auctions online black holes by observing the X-rays to be launched in 2012. GEMS is being evaluated. NASA must provide the spectrometer telescope Japanese ASTRO-H is scheduled for launch in 2014 29 . NASA also uses the balloon catheter of large diameter ( 100 meters ) flying at an altitude of 35 km to test the behavior of the STD Test equipment of space vehicles under conditions similar to those of empty space and to carry out scientific research in the astrophysics and the study of the Sun 30 . The study of the Sun, the heliosphere and magnetosphere

The two STEREO satellites In early 2010 NASA has 17 operational satellites devoted to studying the Sun, the heliosphere and magnetosphere counting SDO launched in February and plans to launch RBSP in 2012 and MMS in 2015. The 2011 budget is $ 642 million or 3% of the total 17 , 31 . The solar observatory ACE launched in 1993 studying all the radiation and participates in the monitoring of solar activity. SOHO mission with ESA launched in 1995 is the main observatory used for space weather and must remain active until ‘in 2013. Located in the Lagrangian point L1 the satellite also discovered many comets . Geotail is no longer operational but its data are being analyzed. The satellite WIND launched in 1994 studying the solar wind and the magnetosphere from the Lagrangian point L1 and must remain in operation until 2013. TIMED launched in 2001 studied the influence of the sun on the thermosphere and mesosphere land should remain in activity until 2014. RHESSI was launched in 2002 is reserved for the study of solar flares in operation until 2013. The probes Voyager also participate in the study of the heliosphere 32 . Several missions grouped under the title Live with a star are mainly responsible Online Teacher Professional Development for studying the interaction between solar activity and atmosphere terretris. The solar observatory SDO was launched in early 2010. The twin satellites RBSP launched in 2012 should investigate the mechanisms at work in the Van Allen belts . Two missions are being developed as part of the program: SPP , whose launch is scheduled for 2018, is studying the Sun electronic cigarette at close range (10 solar radii), while SOC , project led by the European Space Agency, is to study the interactions between the solar surface, the solar corona and inner heliosphere from a distance of 45 solar radii. DSX is a small satellite designed to develop methods to play down the influence of solar flares on satellite. BARREL means a set of scientific experiments on board of balloons in 2013 to supplement the data collected by satellites RBSP 33 .

IBEX being mounted on its launcher Pegase (2008) The behavior of the solar plasma is studied by a number of missions. The two twin satellites STEREO in operation since 2007 studying particular coronal mass ejections . NASA has three instruments on board the Japanese satellite Hinode (Solar B) launched in 2006 that studies the relationship between the solar corona and the Sun’s magnetic field. The satellite MMS to be launched in 2014 will study the reconnection of the magnetic field near the Earth’s magnetosphere 34 . The theme also includes missions characterized by a short development cycle (Small and Medium Explorer). IBEX was launched in 2008, studies the interaction between cash advance the solar wind and solar winds of other stars. TWINS B complete the observations made since 2008 satellite launched earlier twin A TWINS and provides a three dimensional image of the Earth’s magnetosphere. The five small satellite THEMIS (Time History of Events and Macroscale Interactions DURING Substorms) launched in 2007 helped to better understand the mechanisms at work in the storms of the magnetosphere. CINDI (Coupled Ion-Neutral Dynamics Investigation) is a scientific experiment on board a satellite of the Air Force, which examines the role of neutral ions on the formation of electric fields in the upper atmosphere. AIM launched in 2007 studied formation of high clouds in polar regions. Two small missions are planned IRIS study the energy transfer between the solar corona and the solar wind and should be launched in 2013. GEMS , an X-ray telescope which will study the magnetic fields around black holes, to be launched in 2014 35 . The Earth Sciences

The satellite fleet of Earth observation from NASA. In early 2010 NASA has 15 operational satellites devoted to studying the Earth and climate. The agency must launch satellites Glory in 2010, NPP in 2011, SCEA and GPM in 2013, SMAP in 2014 and finally ICESat -2 in 2015. On the other hand the satellite OCO lost when it was launched in 2009 to be rebuilt and launched in 2013. The 2011 budget is 1 802 million dollars or 9% of the total 17 , 36 . NASA has large teams of researchers whose work focuses on modeling the Earth system and exploit the data collected by the various space systems and airborne implemented by NASA. It has the largest system of computer storage of scientific data on the planet that must absorb the additional 4 terabytes of data provided daily by satellites. For its NASA has a super-computer ( Pleiades ) acquired in 2008 and with 40 000 processors which ranks sixth in his power. Research activities and the logistics accounts for 25% of the budget devoted to NASA Earth Science 37 . Missions Earth Systematic Missions Program are intended to carry out systematic collection of data that is then redistributed to many internal and external users. Ten satellites are currently operational 38 :

The Aqua satellite Aqua was launched in 2002 as the characteristics of clouds and moisture in the soil and the atmosphere. Will be launched in 2004 as the amount of ozone, water vapor, carbon of monooxyde, methane, ozone and CFCs in the atmosphere. Terra developed with Japan and Canada since 2000 and based in particular assess the photosynthesis, aerosols, radiation budget and the amount of carbon monoxide. TRMM is a satellite jointly developed with Japan and launched in 1997 that measures the intensity and distribution of rainfall. ACRIMSat launched in 1999 as the luminous flux from the Sun. QuikSCAT mission was launched in 1999 that measures the speed and wind direction over the oceans. Earth Observing-1 launched in 2002 and still operational has described as new instruments for Earth observation. ICESat was launched in 2003 as the mass of ice present at San Diego Homes For Rent the poles and the characteristics of clouds at these latitudes. SORCE launched in 2003 as the different radiation reaching the Earth’s atmosphere. The instrument Ocean Surface Topography Mission (OSTM) on board the satellite Jason -2 developed jointly with CNES and launched in 2008 as a precise height to measure ocean currents and the amount of heat stored. GRACE developed with the German Space Agency and launched in 2002 as the Earth’s gravity field.

SMAP is planned for 2013 Several satellites are in various stages of development. GPM is a satellite developed jointly by NASA and JAXA to be launched in 2013 and must measure precipitation provided so far by TRMM end of life. Glory that is be launched in 2011 as the distribution and characteristics of aerosols from natural or artificial. SCEA launched in 2012, is a joint project with the US Survey must take over from the long series of satellites Landsat (as resources land, disaster assessment). NPP , a joint project with NOAA and the DOD launched in 2011, is meant to validate the instruments to be used by future weather satellites. ICESat-2 must take over in 2015 from ICESat to measure the polar ice caps. Airborne measurement campaigns will be undertaken by NASA to ensure continuity between the end Cell Phone Accessories of life of ICESat and the launch of new satellite. SMAP , which makes measurements of soil moisture of the earth’s surface and soil conditions (freeze-thaw), to be launched in 2014. Stratospheric Aerosol Spectrometer and Gas Experiment (SAGE III) must be installed in 2013 in the International Space Station 38 . In the longer term (planned for launch in 2017), the satellite CLARREO should allow early detection of climatic variations while DESDynI uses a combination of lidar and radar to estimate the deformations of the earth’s surface, the dynamics of ice cover and the evolution of the biomass < 38 . The Earth System Science Pathfinder program includes low-cost missions to the scientific objectives more focused than the Earth Systematic Missions Program. Two satellites are operational: CloudSat was launched in 2006 as the characteristics of clouds to provide a better understanding of the role of thick clouds in the radiation balance of the Earth. CALIPSO was launched in 2006 as the vertical distribution of aerosols and clouds using lidar. The satellite OCO lost when it was launched in 2009 to be rebuilt and launched in 2013. Aquarius is an instrument onboard the satellite Argentine SAC-D , which must measure the seasonal and annual variations in the salinity of the oceans and their influence on ocean circulation. Its launch in 2011 39 . Space Research

The proposed X-33 . Space Technology program aims to develop advanced concepts applicable to Space. This research is undertaken and funded, among others, many programs encouraging innovation involving internal teams and external partners or companies. The program has a budget in 2011 of $ 572 million or 3% of total 40 . For missions of solar system exploration NASA has several projects on space propulsion for which funding is attached to the spacecraft. The agency developed the ion engine to xenon NEXT (NASA’s Evolutionary Xenon Thruster) as part of a program that should result in 2013. The agency also has a study program on the Hall effect thruster 41 , 42 . The radioisotope thermoelectric generator is an alternative to photovoltaic cells used when solar energy is not sufficient (mission to the outer planets). NASA is studying a much more efficient through the use of Stirling cycle (Stirling Radioisotope Generator program Advanced ASRG) that could be used by space probes launched from 2014 to 2016 43 . Aerospace research

The Wire Cart Covers research in the field of aviation are the responsibility of NASA. NASA is the primary research center Aerospace America. The budget allocated to this activity in 2011 is $ 579.6 million or 3% of the total budget. These funds are distributed among five research programs 44 : Aviation Safety NASA is working on the future system of air traffic control U.S. NextGen must cope with the increased number of flights in U.S. airspace. The space agency is working, among other things, the devices can automatically detect hazardous situations (risk of collision) and the design of an airplane cockpit optimizing the work of the crew and its ability to respond quickly to risk events. Aeronautical systems This program covers research strategies for automating the selection of routes in the future system of air traffic control U.S. NextGen. Aeronautical Research Several themes are part of this program: development of techniques for rotorcraft , development of a toolkit for designing the wings of future aircraft flying speed subsonic optimizing noise and performance. Design tools of the fuselage and wing aircraft supersonic . Research on the flight hypersonic (Mach 5 speeds above) with applications in space ( re-entry , landing on Mars). Tests This program involves the provision of test facilities: wind tunnels , test stands aircraft. Research on integrated systems Research on new aircraft designs to simultaneously reduce the amount of fuel consumed, noise and emissions. Integration of unmanned aircraft in air traffic. Organization

Decision-making The director of NASA is appointed by the President of the United States, after consultation and agreement of the U.S. Senate . The incumbent director since May 2009 is Charles F. Bolden former astronaut. The NASA Headquarters is in Washington (DC) . Four directions (directorate) are responsible for defining space policy and monitor its implementation by the various NASA centers: the direction of the Aeronautics Research (ARMD directorate), the Science (SMD) in charge of scientific exploration Earth, the solar system and the universe, the direction of Exploration Systems (EMSD) which performs the necessary developments in human flight and robotic and finally the lead Space (Somda) responsible for launching and monitoring missions 45 . The NASA space centers

Mission Control Centre of the space shuttle to the center Johnson NASA has 10 space centers that directly employ 23 000 people (5000 at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory 45 ) and a large number of subcontractors on site: Space Center Lyndon B. Johnson The Space Center Lyndon B. Johnson (or MSC Manned Spacecraft Center) near Houston in Texas , is responsible for the design and qualification of manned spacecraft (space station, space ships), the training of astronauts and monitoring missions from take-off . Among the facilities on the site, there is the control center manned missions (International Space Station, Space Shuttle), flight simulators and equipment to simulate conditions in space and used to test the components delivered by suppliers NASA. The Center manages the White Sands facility in New Mexico that is used to test different equipment was essentially part of the space shuttle program. Marshall Space Flight Center The Marshall Space Flight Center (George C. Marshall Space denver injury lawyer Flight Center and MSFC) located near Huntsville in the Alabama specializes in civil propulsion launch vehicles and spacecraft. Today, the Marshall Center is responsible for the propulsion of the Space Shuttle and payload of the latter as well as launch vehicles and vessels of the Constellation program . The center is responsible for the establishment of Michoud is assembled when the external tank of the Space Shuttle. It also manages the program of lunar probes. This former installation of the Army (Redstone Arsenal) formerly led by Wernher von Braun developed the family of launchers Saturn 46 .

Test in a vacuum chamber of 2 e stage Delta III Space Center Glenn Jet Propulsion Laboratory The Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), located near Los Angeles , California, is responsible for the development and operational management of the majority of spacecraft from NASA, some satellite Earth observation as well as instruments on board on scientific satellites in Earth orbit. 100 day loans JPL also manages the three groups of antennas in Australia, Spain and California’s Deep Space Network which is used for communications with the spacecraft. Created in 1930 to investigate rocket propulsion, the origin of its name, is a joint venture between NASA and Caltech . Ames Research Center The Ames Research Center is a former (1939) located in California in the heart of Silicon Valley . Originally known for its wind tunnels used in particular to develop the shape of the Apollo capsule, the property is now specializing in the embedded computing on the vessels and sensors, supercomputers, the ATM and the Exobiology . The center is responsible for some space programs such as lunar probe LCROSS , LADE , the Space Telescope Kepler telescope and the airborne SOFIA 47 . Langley Research Center The Langley Research Center located in Virginia is the oldest of NASA centers (1917). It conducts research on the aerodynamics of airplanes with more wind tunnels. Langley researchers are also working on climate change 48 . Goddard Space Flight Center The Goddard Space Flight Center , located about 10 km northeast of Washington DC in the State of Maryland , is the largest research center of NASA casino and employs approximately 10,000 people including Subcontractors. The institution is responsible for the development and management of telescopes and space observatories developed by NASA as well as most satellites of Earth observation. The hotel also operates hcg diet the Center Wallops Island on the launch of balloons, sounding rockets or small satellites scientists (including using rocket Scout ). Glenn Research Center The Glenn Research Center , located near Cleveland in the Ohio , is traditionally specialized in the development of propulsion techniques (cryogenic, electrical) 49 .

Aerial view of the VAB building integration of the shuttle at Kennedy Space Center Center Dryden Flight Research The Center Dryden Flight Research located in the Mojave Desert in California is used for atmospheric flight tests. It is also the emergency landing site for space shuttle when weather conditions are not favorable to Kennedy. Space Center, John C. Stennis The Space Center, John C. Stennis wow gold located in Mississippi includes several test benches used to test rocket engines developed for the various programs. Kennedy Space Center The Kennedy Space Center (KSC), located on the island Meritt in Florida , is the site where space shuttles are launched. Space in the heart of the Launch Complex 39 has two launch pads and a huge assembly building , the VAB (height 140 meters ), in which the space shuttle is prepared. Multiple platforms to launch mobile products move the shuttle to the launch site. Kennedy Space Center next to the launch pad at Cape Canaveral where the space probes were launched by NASA.

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A Brief History Of Space Exploration

Chronology of Space Exploration